Games Selection

Category Criteria
Player Base & Popularity - Large user and player base with millions of active players.
  - Global reach across demographics.
  - Consistent engagement and replayability.
  - Established communities, including forums, wikis, and mods.
Cognitive Skill Engagement - Problem-solving through strategy and puzzles.
  - Critical thinking involving evaluation and pattern recognition.
  - Spatial reasoning, including navigation and construction.
  - Social cognition, focusing on teamwork, communication, and deception.
  - Memory and recall of patterns, objectives, and interactions.
  - Perseverance in overcoming challenging difficulty levels.
Mechanics & Gameplay Diversity - Varied core mechanics, such as exploration, creativity/building, precision/reflexes, combat/strategy, and social interaction.
  - Skill-based challenges that depend on player improvement rather than luck.
  - Representation of different genres, including sandbox, adventure, puzzle, RPG, and multiplayer.
Accessibility - Availability on multiple platforms, including PC, console, and mobile.
  - Intuitive controls and mechanics to reduce the learning curve.
  - Support for modifications or user-created content.
Educational Potential - Alignment with cognitive or educational objectives.
  - Demonstrated cognitive or behavioral benefits.
Replayability & Longevity - Open-ended gameplay to encourage continuous engagement.
  - Dynamic systems, such as procedural generation and adaptive AI.
  - Community-driven content, including updates, expansions, and challenges.

Ontology Mappings

Below is a list of games along with their in-game goals, categorized according to the Unifying Game Ontology’s classification of gameplay goals, subgoals, and corresponding mechanics.

As defined by the Unifying Game Ontology, gameplay goals are milestones that players achieve throughout the game to reach the ultimate objective. These goals can either be explicit, clearly presented and explained to the player, or implicit, where they are discovered during gameplay. Each gameplay goal can also be broken down into smaller subgoals, making them more or less complex.

On the other hand, as described by Sicart, mechanics are the methods used by agents or players to interact with the game system. From this perspective, gameplay mechanics represent the actions or tools available to players that enable them to progress in the game and achieve both explicit and implicit goals.

The following section highlights five games selected from some of the most popular titles in recent years, each showcasing diverse gameplay features. For each game, we outline its in-game goals, subgoals, and the mechanics players use to accomplish them. Additionally, a brief description of each gameplay mechanic is provided.

Game Main Goal Sub-Goal Mechanic Mechanic Contribution
Minecraft Survive Gather food Farming Enables players to grow crops or raise animals for food supply.
    Avoid enemies Combat Allows players to fight off hostile mobs (e.g., zombies, skeletons).
    Build shelter Building Facilitates the creation of protective structures.
  Build Structures Collect materials Mining Provides raw materials like stone, iron, and diamonds for construction.
    Craft tools Crafting Lets players create tools (e.g., pickaxes, axes) needed for building.
    Plan layout Exploration Helps players locate suitable areas and resources for building.
  Gather Resources Locate resources Exploration Enables players to identify resource-rich zones (e.g., caves, forests).
    Mine safely Mining Extracts resources like coal, iron, and gold while managing risks.
    Manage inventory Resource Management Organizes collected items to maximize efficiency and avoid overflow.
  Explore World Find biomes Exploration Guides players to diverse environments with unique resources.
    Discover caves Exploration Locates underground structures rich in resources and challenges.
    Avoid hazards Combat Neutralizes threats like mobs that spawn in caves or dark areas.
  Defeat Bosses Prepare gear Crafting Produces high-quality armor, weapons, and potions for boss fights.
    Find boss location Exploration Helps players discover strongholds or boss arenas (e.g., Ender Dragon).
    Fight effectively Combat Executes attacks and defensive strategies against bosses.
  Create Community Build shared spaces Building Facilitates the creation of structures like towns or meeting halls.
    Collaborate with others Exploration Assists players in navigating and coordinating with teammates.
The Legend of Zelda: BotW Defeat Ganon Gather weapons Exploration Finds weapons in shrines, treasure chests, and from defeated enemies.
    Unlock abilities Puzzle-Solving Rewards new abilities for solving shrine challenges.
    Reach castle Climbing, Gliding Enables traversal of vertical terrain and long distances.
  Complete Shrines Find shrines Exploration Reveals shrine locations through map and NPC hints.
    Solve puzzles Puzzle-Solving Unlocks shrine doors and treasures through challenges.
    Obtain rewards Puzzle-Solving, Combat Rewards powerful weapons, armor, or abilities for completing challenges.
  Explore World Unlock map Exploration Activates map towers to reveal regional layouts.
    Find landmarks Exploration Locates significant areas for quests and resources.
    Avoid enemies Stealth Allows players to sneak past threats without engaging.
  Collect Resources Find ingredients Exploration Identifies materials for cooking and crafting (e.g., herbs, meat).
    Gather materials Exploration Collects resources like wood and ore for upgrades.
    Upgrade items Crafting Uses materials to enhance gear like weapons and shields.
  Restore Memories Locate memory spots Exploration Guides players to specific locations tied to the storyline.
    Interact with NPCs Exploration, Stealth Connects players to narrative elements or quests without drawing attention.
  Help NPCs Find quests Exploration Locates NPCs offering side missions.
    Solve tasks Cooking, Puzzle-Solving Helps fulfill NPC requests like crafting dishes or solving problems.
    Defeat enemies Combat Protects NPCs or retrieves items by defeating threats.
Tetris Clear Lines Position blocks Block-Placement Places blocks strategically to align and clear rows.
    Match patterns Rotation Rotates blocks to fit gaps and complete rows.
  Maximize Score Clear multiple lines Line-Clearing Achieves combos by clearing several rows simultaneously.
    Set up combos Block-Placement Aligns blocks to create chain reactions for high scores.
  Survive Increasing Speed Anticipate shapes Block-Placement Positions blocks quickly to adapt to faster gameplay.
    Avoid gaps Rotation Rotates blocks to prevent structural weaknesses.
Dark Souls Defeat Bosses Learn patterns Combat Analyzes and counters boss attack cycles for effective fights.
    Prepare gear Exploration, Crafting Collects and enhances weapons, armor, and consumables.
    Time attacks Dodging, Parrying Executes precise movements to exploit enemy vulnerabilities.
  Explore World Unlock areas Exploration Discovers new zones and pathways.
    Avoid traps Exploration, Stamina Management Navigates hazardous areas safely.
    Find NPCs Exploration Locates key characters for quests or assistance.
  Survive Enemies Learn enemy moves Combat Observes and counters enemy attack patterns.
    Manage health Resource Management Uses potions or items to heal and sustain health.
    Use environment Exploration Utilizes terrain for strategic advantages in combat.
  Level Up Character Gain souls Combat Defeats enemies to collect souls for character upgrades.
    Allocate stats Resource Management Assigns points to improve attributes like strength or endurance.
    Upgrade equipment Crafting Enhances gear to boost effectiveness in combat.
  Collect Items Locate chests Exploration Searches for hidden loot in the world.
    Defeat enemies Combat Secures items guarded by foes.
    Solve puzzles Puzzle-Solving Unlocks areas with hidden items.
  Unlock Shortcuts Find pathways Exploration Identifies faster routes for backtracking or progression.
    Open gates Exploration Unblocks access to new areas.
    Avoid hazards Stamina Management Ensures careful movements through dangerous zones.
Among Us Complete Tasks Locate tasks Exploration Finds task locations using the map.
    Solve mini-games Task-Solving Completes interactive challenges to advance crewmate goals.
    Avoid impostors Stealth Navigates carefully to avoid detection by impostors.
  Identify Impostor Gather evidence Collaboration Shares information and observations with other crewmates.
    Discuss findings Voting Uses reasoning and evidence to persuade others.
    Vote correctly Voting Identifies impostors through majority consensus.
  Deceive Crewmates Create alibis Deception Establishes fake actions or stories to gain trust.
    Spread doubt Deception Misleads crewmates during discussions.
    Fake tasks Sabotage Pretends to perform tasks to appear innocent.
  Sabotage Systems Disrupt tasks Sabotage Slows down crewmates’ progress on objectives.
    Create emergencies Sabotage Forces crewmates to divert focus and isolate themselves.
    Split crewmates Sabotage Isolates players to create opportunities for impostors.
  Survive Meetings Avoid suspicion Deception Directs blame or suspicion away from oneself.
    Argue convincingly Deception, Collaboration Uses logical arguments or emotional appeals to sway votes.

Using our ontology mapping tool, we generate for every gameplay goal the corresponding cogntive process from the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy.

Minecraft

Ontology Mapping

Goal Sub-Goal Cognitive Process Verb
Survive Gather food Apply Utilize, Execute
  Avoid enemies Analyze Distinguish, Detect
  Build shelter Create Design, Construct
Build Structures Collect materials Remember Recognize, Identify
  Craft tools Apply Execute, Implement
  Plan layout Analyze Organize, Structure
Gather Resources Locate resources Remember Identify, Locate
  Mine safely Evaluate Assess, Judge
  Manage inventory Apply Manage, Organize
Explore World Find biomes Understand Interpret, Discover
  Discover caves Analyze Differentiate, Classify
  Avoid hazards Evaluate Assess, Decide
Defeat Bosses Prepare gear Apply Assemble, Prepare
  Find boss location Remember Recall, Locate
  Fight effectively Apply Engage, Perform
Create Community Build shared spaces Create Construct, Build
  Collaborate with others Apply Coordinate, Collaborate

Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy Table

Knowledge Type Remember Understand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create
Factual Identify materials Recognize hazards Manage inventory Classify threats Assess mob dangers Design shelter layouts
Conceptual Recall crafting recipes Interpret terrain Craft tools Plan resource collection Judge exploration risks Build protective towns
Procedural Locate resources Plan shelter locations Execute farming methods Optimize mining paths Evaluate survival strategies Develop long-term farming strategies
Metacognitive Reflect on resource use Anticipate enemy behavior Adapt crafting plans Critique inventory management Review building efficiency Invent community layouts

The Legend of Zelda: Breath of the Wild

Ontology Mapping

Goal Sub-Goal Cognitive Process Verb
Defeat Ganon Gather weapons Apply Utilize, Equip
  Unlock abilities Create Generate, Develop
  Reach castle Apply Navigate, Traverse
Complete Shrines Find shrines Understand Interpret, Discover
  Solve puzzles Analyze Solve, Resolve
  Obtain rewards Apply Acquire, Utilize
Explore World Unlock map Understand Locate, Interpret
  Find landmarks Remember Identify, Recognize
  Avoid enemies Evaluate Assess, Judge
Collect Resources Find ingredients Remember Recognize, Identify
  Gather materials Apply Collect, Organize
  Upgrade items Apply Enhance, Improve
Restore Memories Locate memory spots Remember Recall, Locate
  Interact with NPCs Understand Interpret, Communicate
Help NPCs Find quests Understand Identify, Locate
  Solve tasks Analyze Solve, Resolve
  Defeat enemies Apply Attack, Defend

Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy Table

Knowledge Type Remember Understand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create
Factual Locate shrines Recognize patterns in puzzles Use glider Analyze enemy weaknesses Judge weapon durability Combine ingredients for cooking
Conceptual Recall abilities Interpret NPC quests Solve shrine challenges Plan combat tactics Assess stealth options Craft strategic approaches
Procedural Find hidden items Understand shrine mechanics Execute climbing techniques Optimize resource gathering Evaluate upgrades Generate solutions to puzzles
Metacognitive Reflect on failed attempts Recognize quest relevance Adapt stealth approaches Analyze combat strategies Review exploration routes Invent exploration paths

Tetris

Ontology Mapping

Goal Sub-Goal Cognitive Process Verb
Clear Lines Position blocks Apply Place, Align
  Match patterns Analyze Organize, Arrange
Maximize Score Clear multiple lines Apply Execute, Optimize
  Set up combos Create Plan, Generate
Survive Increasing Speed Anticipate shapes Evaluate Predict, Assess
  Avoid gaps Apply Rotate, Adjust

Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy Table

Knowledge Type Remember Understand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create
Factual Recognize block shapes Interpret gaps in layout Rotate blocks Analyze block placement Evaluate scoring opportunities Set up high-value combos
Conceptual Recall rotation options Predict outcomes of moves Place blocks Optimize combos Judge next piece placement Design efficient strategies
Procedural Recall stacking methods Understand combo logic Execute rapid placement Optimize line clearing Assess overall performance Develop stacking patterns
Metacognitive Reflect on mistakes Recognize future challenges Adapt placement speed Critique own decisions Review gameplay strategies Innovate stacking techniques

Dark Souls

Ontology Mapping

Goal Sub-Goal Cognitive Process Verb
Defeat Bosses Learn patterns Understand Interpret, Recognize
  Prepare gear Apply Equip, Enhance
  Time attacks Apply Execute, Adjust
Explore World Unlock areas Understand Discover, Navigate
  Avoid traps Evaluate Predict, Avoid
  Find NPCs Remember Identify, Locate
Survive Enemies Learn enemy moves Understand Interpret, Analyze
  Manage health Apply Administer, Regenerate
  Use environment Analyze Utilize, Leverage
Level Up Character Gain souls Apply Earn, Accumulate
  Allocate stats Evaluate Distribute, Prioritize
  Upgrade equipment Apply Enhance, Improve
Collect Items Locate chests Remember Identify, Find
  Defeat enemies Apply Engage, Overcome
  Solve puzzles Analyze Solve, Deduce
Unlock Shortcuts Find pathways Understand Recognize, Navigate
  Open gates Apply Unlock, Access
  Avoid hazards Evaluate Predict, Avoid

Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy Table

Knowledge Type Remember Understand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create
Factual Recall enemy patterns Recognize item properties Execute attacks Analyze enemy behaviors Evaluate gear effectiveness Design combat strategies
Conceptual Recall boss mechanics Interpret environment clues Manage stamina Plan exploration routes Assess weapon upgrades Develop combat plans
Procedural Locate hidden areas Understand NPC behaviors Use potions effectively Optimize resource use Evaluate shortcut options Build character builds
Metacognitive Reflect on failed attempts Anticipate enemy moves Adapt to boss mechanics Analyze combat efficiency Review exploration strategies Innovate survival techniques

Among Us

Ontology Mapping

Goal Sub-Goal Cognitive Process Verb
Complete Tasks Locate tasks Remember Identify, Locate
  Solve mini-games Apply Solve, Complete
  Avoid impostors Evaluate Detect, Assess
Identify Impostor Gather evidence Analyze Collect, Examine
  Discuss findings Understand Communicate, Share
  Vote correctly Evaluate Decide, Judge
Deceive Crewmates Create alibis Create Fabricate, Devise
  Spread doubt Analyze Mislead, Distract
  Fake tasks Apply Simulate, Perform
Sabotage Systems Disrupt tasks Apply Disable, Impede
  Create emergencies Apply Initiate, Distract
  Split crewmates Apply Separate, Confuse
Survive Meetings Avoid suspicion Analyze Justify, Deflect
  Argue convincingly Apply Persuade, Convince

Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy Table

Knowledge Type Remember Understand Apply Analyze Evaluate Create
Factual Locate tasks Recognize impostor patterns Perform tasks Analyze voting behavior Evaluate evidence Generate alibis
Conceptual Recall task locations Interpret player movements Complete mini-games Assess suspicions Judge team performance Craft deception plans
Procedural Identify task order Understand sabotage mechanics Execute sabotages Optimize task strategies Evaluate impostor strategies Develop voting tactics
Metacognitive Reflect on mistakes Recognize voting trends Adapt gameplay strategies Analyze social dynamics Review team coordination Invent impostor traps

Results Discussion

The analysis reveals that all games heavily emphasize the “Apply” cognitive process, as gameplay often revolves around executing tasks or mechanics such as building, solving, or reacting. Exploratory games like Minecraft and Zelda engage more with “Remember” and “Understand,” due to their nature of requiring players to recall and interpret elements like crafting recipes or environmental cues. Strategy-driven games such as Among Us and Dark Souls stand out in “Analyze” and “Evaluate,” challenging players to examine patterns, make decisions, and critically judge situations. The “Create” process is less dominant but appears strongly in games like Minecraft, which encourages creativity through building, and Among Us, where deception and fabrication play a crucial role, while structured games like Tetris or Dark Souls show less reliance on player-driven innovation. Games like Tetris focus more on procedural execution and efficiency, highlighting reactive gameplay over understanding or creativity. In contrast, complex games such as Zelda and Dark Souls demonstrate a balanced distribution across cognitive processes, offering a richer and more diverse player experience through layered challenges and engaging mechanics. This illustrates how different games cater to various cognitive skills, reflecting their design focus and player engagement strategies.