INSTRUCTION

An instruction is a clear, action-oriented directive designed to guide learners toward achieving a specific objective or task. It is typically expressed using an action verb to ensure clarity, measurability, and alignment with desired learning outcomes.

[Action Verb] + [Task/Content] + [Performance Context/Condition] + [Criterion for Success]

Every instruction is tied to a specific cognitive process, and using an action verb ensures that the instruction explicitly targets and triggers the desired cognitive process. This alignment between the verb and the cognitive process is fundamental in instructional design and is often framed using models like Bloom’s Taxonomy or Anderson and Krathwohl’s Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy.

Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy Cognitive Processes

Cognitive Process	Instruction Category	Instruction	Synonyms
0	1	2	3
Remembering (Restitution)	Recognize	choose	select, pick, opt, decide, elect
		define	explain, describe, interpret, specify, delineate
		relate	associate, connect, link, correlate, tie
		label	tag, mark, name, categorize, designate
		match	pair, associate, align, correlate, equate
		show	display, present, exhibit, reveal, demonstrate
		select	choose, pick, opt, decide, elect
	Recall	find	discover, locate, identify, determine, unearth
		list	enumerate, itemize, catalogue, record, outline
		name	identify, designate, specify, nominate, mention
		spell	articulate, pronounce, write, enunciate, dictate
		tell	narrate, recount, explain, inform, describe
Understanding (Manipulation)	Classify	allocate	assign, designate, distribute, apportion, allot
		analyze	examine, dissect, evaluate, investigate, deconstruct
		distribute	share, allocate, assign, apportion, dispense
		divide	separate, split, partition, segment, allocate
		arrange	organize, order, sequence, classify, systematize
		label	tag, mark, name, categorize, designate
		organize	arrange, structure, systematize, classify, coordinate
		segregate	separate, isolate, divide, differentiate, partition
	Exemplify	illustrate	demonstrate, depict, clarify, explain, highlight
		demonstrate	show, exhibit, display, explain, reveal
		depict	portray, represent, illustrate, draw, visualize
		elucidate	explain, clarify, illuminate, interpret, expound
		embody	personify, represent, typify, symbolize, exemplify
		epitomize	embody, typify, symbolize, represent, exemplify
		illuminate	clarify, explain, enlighten, interpret, shed light
		manifest	reveal, demonstrate, display, exhibit, embody
		mirror	reflect, resemble, echo, imitate, replicate
		personify	embody, symbolize, typify, represent, characterize
		represent	illustrate, signify, depict, demonstrate, symbolize
		spell out	clarify, detail, specify, explain, articulate
		symbolise	represent, signify, embody, typify, characterize
		typify	exemplify, represent, signify, symbolize, embody
	Infer	ascertain	deduce, determine, figure out, discover, identify
		construe	interpret, deduce, infer, analyze, explain
		educe	extract, deduce, infer, elicit, derive
		derive	obtain, deduce, infer, originate, extract
		figure out	solve, deduce, determine, decipher, calculate
		speculate	hypothesize, guess, theorize, conjecture, surmise
	Interpret	rephrase	reword, paraphrase, restate, clarify, explain
		translate	convert, interpret, explain, clarify, decode
	Explain	demonstrate	show, illustrate, display, present, clarify
		analyze	examine, evaluate, dissect, interpret, break down
		clarify	explain, illuminate, simplify, interpret, expound
		define	describe, specify, delineate, characterize, explain
		describe	explain, depict, portray, outline, detail
		disclose	reveal, explain, share, expose, open up
		expound	explain, elucidate, clarify, interpret, illustrate
		illustrate	demonstrate, depict, clarify, explain, highlight
		interpret	explain, clarify, translate, deduce, expound
		justify	explain, validate, rationalize, support, defend
		point out	highlight, indicate, show, remark, demonstrate
		resolve	solve, settle, address, clarify, determine
		reveal	show, disclose, demonstrate, uncover, explain
		solve	address, resolve, figure out, determine, work out
		spell out	clarify, detail, explain, elaborate, articulate
	Compare	contrast	differentiate, distinguish, juxtapose, weigh, evaluate
		analyze	examine, dissect, evaluate, interpret, study
		correlate	associate, connect, link, compare, align
		equal	match, balance, correspond, rival, level
		match	pair, align, equate, parallel, correspond
		measure	quantify, assess, calculate, evaluate, compare
		study	examine, analyze, evaluate, investigate, review
	Summarize	compile	collect, gather, condense, organize, aggregate
		sum up	conclude, recapitulate, encapsulate, condense, simplify
		recap	summarize, repeat, review, restate, condense
		encapsulate	condense, summarize, embody, express, simplify
Applying (Usage)	Execute	construct	build, create, design, assemble, fabricate
		make use of	utilize, apply, employ, exploit, adopt
		solve	resolve, address, fix, answer, work out
		build	construct, erect, assemble, fabricate, develop
	Implement	develop	create, generate, design, formulate, construct
		identify	recognize, pinpoint, determine, find, detect
		model	simulate, represent, prototype, mimic, replicate
		organize	arrange, systematize, classify, coordinate, structure
		experiment with	test, try out, explore, evaluate, investigate
Analyzing	Differentiate	separate	divide, split, isolate, distinguish, partition
		discriminate	distinguish, differentiate, identify, discern, segregate
		discern	recognize, detect, perceive, identify, distinguish
	Organize	coordinate	arrange, align, manage, structure, systematize
		construct	build, create, assemble, design, fabricate
		formulate	devise, draft, frame, articulate, develop
	Attribute	trace	track, follow, map, discover, identify
		connect	link, associate, relate, tie, align
Evaluating	Check	correct	fix, amend, adjust, rectify, modify
		critique	evaluate, analyze, assess, judge, review
		investigate	examine, explore, probe, inspect, inquire
		test	try, experiment, evaluate, assess, validate
		check	verify, review, inspect, confirm, scrutinize
		review	assess, evaluate, examine, critique, analyze
		verify	confirm, validate, authenticate, substantiate, prove
Evaluating	Confirm	validate	authenticate, substantiate, verify, endorse, approve
		approve	accept, authorize, consent, endorse, agree
		corroborate	support, verify, substantiate, validate, confirm
Creating	Generate	spawn	create, produce, bring forth, originate, emit
		engender	produce, bring about, generate, cause, induce
		achieve	accomplish, attain, complete, realize, fulfill
	Plan	design	outline, draft, blueprint, develop, conceptualize
		plot	scheme, chart, plan, map out, arrange
	Produce	construct	build, assemble, fabricate, create, erect
		build	construct, assemble, fabricate, design, create
		invent	devise, originate, innovate, conceive, imagine

Gagné’s Eight Types of Learning

Type of Learning	Instruction Category	Instruction	Synonyms
Signal Learning	Recognize	match	pair, associate, align, correlate, equate
	Select	choose	select, pick, opt, decide, elect
	Respond	react	reply, respond, act, answer
Stimulus-Response Learning	Respond	react	reply, respond, act, answer
	Recall	find	discover, locate, identify, determine, unearth
		tell	narrate, recount, explain, inform, describe
	Differentiate	discriminate	distinguish, differentiate, identify, discern, segregate
Chaining	Classify	arrange	organize, order, sequence, classify, systematize
		combine	link, connect, join, unite, integrate
	Summarize	compile	collect, gather, condense, organize, aggregate
Verbal Association	Recall	list	enumerate, itemize, catalogue, record, outline
		recite	repeat, recount, articulate, declare, state
	Explain	describe	explain, depict, portray, outline, detail
Discrimination Learning	Differentiate	discriminate	distinguish, differentiate, identify, discern, segregate
		compare	contrast, juxtapose, correlate, analyze, evaluate
		identify	recognize, detect, perceive, pinpoint, discern
Concept Learning	Classify	categorize	group, sort, arrange, systematize, organize
		label	tag, mark, name, designate, characterize
		define	describe, specify, delineate, characterize, explain
Rule Learning	Apply	construct	build, create, design, assemble, fabricate
		solve	resolve, address, fix, answer, work out
	Explain	justify	explain, validate, rationalize, support, defend
Problem Solving	Analyze	formulate	devise, draft, frame, articulate, develop
		integrate	combine, synthesize, merge, incorporate, harmonize
	Evaluate	validate	authenticate, substantiate, verify, endorse, approve

GAME

MECHANICS

Activation

Definition: When an object or ability merely requires the input to be activated but executes its effect autonomously afterwards, the player uses an activation mechanic.

Mechanic	Decomposition
New Mechanic	Defining purpose, designing rules, implementing functionality, integrating with existing systems.

Change of Element

Definition: Change of element describes the alteration of a game element, potentially rendering its ascription to a different class within the game system.

Mechanic	Decomposition
Upgrading/Downgrading	Assessing options, selecting, applying changes, confirming improvement or reduction.
Contracting	Consolidating, simplifying, reducing complexity, confirming.
Transforming	Selecting base element, applying transformation, validating new state.

Choosing

Definition: Choosing refers to mechanics that enable players to make a final decision between a given set of options.

Mechanic	Decomposition
Sequencing	Ordering, prioritizing, timing, confirming, resolving conflicts.
Submitting	Creating, validating, sending, confirming reception.

Removal

Definition: Removal stands for the complete removal of an entity or element from the game.

Mechanic	Decomposition
Attacking/Defending	Initiating action, positioning, targeting, countering, retaliating.
Discarding	Evaluating value, prioritizing, removing, finalizing decision.

Change of Possession

Definition: This includes mechanics that alter the ‘possessed by’ status of a given element. It encompasses sending, receiving, and exchanging possessions.

Mechanic	Decomposition
Bidding	Setting an offer, raising stakes, bluffing, passing, negotiating, resolving conflicts.
Buying/Selling	Price setting, resource management, exchanging items, bartering, agreeing on trade terms.
Catching	Timing, positioning, reaching, securing, handling, reacting.
Conquering	Planning, attacking, resource allocation, occupying, fortifying, negotiating.
Conversing	Initiating dialogue, choosing dialogue options, listening, interpreting, responding, persuading.
Enclosing	Surrounding, capturing, trapping, finalizing, securing a boundary.
Expressing	Creating, sharing, contextualizing, performing, evoking emotions.
Information-seeking	Questioning, researching, interpreting, verifying, navigating, deducing.
Taking	Selecting, claiming, securing, removing, integrating into inventory.
Trading	Offering, counter-offering, negotiating, finalizing exchange, evaluating value.
Story-telling	Setting a scene, developing characters, creating a narrative arc, delivering, refining.

Creation

Definition: The creation of elements can be incremental or complete. Incremental creation includes steps, while complete creation generates the element in its entirety.

Mechanic	Decomposition
Building	Planning, acquiring resources, assembling, finalizing structure.
Composing	Ideating, arranging, synthesizing, refining, delivering.
Enclosing	(See above under Change of Possession)
Placing	(See above under Navigation)
Storytelling	(See above under Change of Possession)

Definition: Navigation describes movement or relocation in space, time, or abstract systems. The mechanics may vary based on path presence, availability, and end/start-point specification.

Mechanic	Decomposition
Accelerating/Decelerating	Initiating, sustaining, stopping, momentum control, environmental interaction.
Allocating	Dividing resources, prioritizing, deciding distribution, balancing.
Aiming & Shooting	Targeting, aligning, adjusting trajectory, firing, observing outcomes.
Arranging	Sorting, grouping, aligning, optimizing layouts.
Browsing	Scanning, selecting, filtering, organizing options.
Catching	(See above under Change of Possession)
Enclosing	(See above under Change of Possession)
Herding	Guiding, grouping, directing, controlling, reacting to resistance.
Jumping	Timing, executing, adjusting height/distance, landing.
Maneuvering	Adjusting position, avoiding obstacles, optimizing paths.
Motion	Initiating movement, sustaining, stopping, altering direction.
Moving	Selecting destination, pathfinding, executing motion, adjusting for obstacles.
Performing	Planning, executing, monitoring, adjusting to audience or goals.
Placing	Selecting a location, positioning, adjusting, confirming.
Point-to-point movement	Selecting points, plotting paths, moving between, confirming arrival.
Sprinting/Slowing	Accelerating, pacing, stopping, restarting.
Substituting	Evaluating options, selecting replacement, integrating new element.
Voting	Proposing, deliberating, selecting, confirming.

SPACE

Organization

Concept	Definition	Characteristics	Examples
Space	The abstract framework within which relationships between entities can be established.	- Provides the fundamental structure for interactions. - Often conceptual or geometric in nature.	The 2D grid in a strategy game, or the 3D volume in an open-world RPG.
Gameworld	The environment within the game space, filled with entities (objects, landscapes, or abstract elements).	- Includes tangible and intangible entities. - Shapes the aesthetic and thematic backdrop.	Mountains, forests, and villages in a fantasy RPG; abstract zones in a puzzle game.
Place	Areas within the gameworld that gain meaning through inhabitation and player interaction.	- Emerges from player activity and engagement. - Often tied to cultural, narrative, or gameplay practices.	A bustling market square in a city, a player’s customized home base.
Location	Specific areas within the gameworld prescribed by the system.	- System-defined and static. - Often overlap with places but are created by game designers.	A city area designated on a map, a dungeon marked as a mission site.

Topology

Topology	Influence on Learning Design	Examples of Application in Serious Games
Single Space	- Focuses attention on a single concept or task at a time. - Ideal for introducing foundational learning objectives.	- A single virtual lab for a chemistry simulation to learn a specific reaction. - A room containing a puzzle that teaches problem-solving skills.
Linear Corridor	- Sequential structure aligns with step-by-step progression of learning objectives. - Instructions are cumulative and scaffolded.	- A history game guiding learners through key historical events in chronological order. - A math game introducing concepts in a progressive sequence (e.g., addition → subtraction).
Multicursal Labyrinth	- Encourages exploration and critical thinking. - Learning objectives can involve problem-solving, decision-making, or discovery.	- A cybersecurity training game where learners explore different strategies to prevent attacks. - A biology game with multiple paths to study different ecosystems.
Hub-Shaped Space	- Allows revisiting concepts and consolidating knowledge. - Central hub can serve as a repository of information or resources.	- A hub in a language-learning game where learners return to practice vocabulary before progressing. - A central mission base in a STEM game for accessing experiments or challenges.
Combination/Nested	- Combines learning modalities for complex, layered instruction. - Offers varied experiences, accommodating diverse objectives.	- A medical training game where learners move between hubs (e.g., hospital departments) and explore specialized challenges (e.g., surgeries or diagnostics) in other spaces.